Here we will look at protein and sugar-based vaccines. We will start by looking at how these vaccines provide protection. We will then investigate how novel biotechnology techniques have helped in the development of new vaccines, before looking at how sugars can be targeted and the impact this has had. Finally, we will explore how advances in immunological understanding are helping to shape the next generation of vaccines.

Here we will explore how instead of targeting individual parts of a pathogen, we can take weaker forms of a pathogen and use it to make a vaccine. We will look at the original vaccines that were developed by this approach, then more broadly at how the immune system provides protection at two sites of infection – the airways and the guts. Finally, we will look at two viral pathogens, polio and influenza, and the past, present and future of vaccines for them.

Finally, we will look at how vaccines can be used to prevent and contain pandemics. We will start with a history of the use of vaccines in pandemics and the special requirements. We will then look at two of the new platforms that were successful during the COVID-19 pandemic, RNA and viral vectors.